Is Zoology A Combination Of Ocean And Animal Biology

Study of the animal kingdom

Zoology ()^{[annotation 1]} is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, development, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they collaborate with their ecosystems. The term is derived from Aboriginal Greek ζῷον , zōion ('animal'), and λόγος , logos ('knowledge', 'study').^[1]

Although humans have always been interested in the natural history of the animals they saw around them, and made utilise of this knowledge to domesticate certain species, the formal study of zoology tin can be said to have originated with Aristotle. He viewed animals as living organisms, studied their construction and development, and considered their adaptations to their surroundings and the role of their parts. The Greek doctor Galen studied homo anatomy and was one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient earth, simply after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early on Center Ages, the Greek tradition of medicine and scientific study went into decline in Western Europe, although it connected in the medieval Islamic world. Modern zoology has its origins during the Renaissance and early modern period, with Carl Linnaeus, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Hooke, Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel and many others.

The report of animals has largely moved on to bargain with form and function, adaptations, relationships between groups, behaviour and environmental. Zoology has increasingly been subdivided into disciplines such equally classification, physiology, biochemistry and development. With the discovery of the structure of Dna past Francis Crick and James Watson in 1953, the realm of molecular biology opened up, leading to advances in jail cell biology, developmental biology and molecular genetics.

History [edit]

The history of zoology traces the written report of the brute kingdom from ancient to modern times. Prehistoric people needed to study the animals and plants in their environment in order to exploit them and survive. There are cave paintings, engravings and sculptures in France dating dorsum 15,000 years showing bison, horses and deer in advisedly rendered item. Similar images from other parts of the earth illustrated mostly the animals hunted for food but also the savage animals.^[2]

The Neolithic Revolution, which is characterized by the domestication of animals, continued over the period of Antiquity. Ancient noesis of wildlife is illustrated past the realistic depictions of wild and domestic animals in the Near E, Mesopotamia and Egypt, including husbandry practices and techniques, hunting and line-fishing. The invention of writing is reflected in zoology by the presence of animals in Egyptian hieroglyphics.^[three]

Although the concept of zoology as a single coherent field arose much later on, the zoological sciences emerged from natural history reaching dorsum to the biological works of Aristotle and Galen in the aboriginal Greco-Roman world. Aristotle, in the quaternary century BC, looked at animals every bit living organisms, studying their structure, development and vital phenomena. He divided them into 2 groups, animals with blood, equivalent to our concept of vertebrates, and animals without blood (invertebrates). He spent two years on Lesbos, observing and describing the animals and plants, considering the adaptations of dissimilar organisms and the function of their parts.^[4] 4 hundred years later, Roman physician Galen dissected animals to report their anatomy and the office of the different parts, because the dissection of man cadavers was prohibited at the time.^[5] This resulted in some of his conclusions beingness false, merely for many centuries it was considered heretical to challenge whatever of his views, so the report of anatomy stultified.^[vi]

During the post-classical era, Center Eastern science and medicine was the almost advanced in the world, integrating concepts from Ancient Greece, Rome, Mesopotamia and Persia too as the ancient Indian tradition of Ayurveda, while making numerous advances and innovations.^[7] In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus produced commentaries and paraphrases of all Aristotle's works; his books on topics like botany, zoology, and minerals included information from ancient sources, but besides the results of his own investigations. His general arroyo was surprisingly modern, and he wrote, "For information technology is [the job] of natural science not simply to accept what nosotros are told simply to inquire into the causes of natural things."^[8] An early pioneer was Conrad Gessner, whose monumental 4,500-page encyclopedia of animals, Historia animalium, was published in four volumes between 1551 and 1558.^[ix]

In Europe, Galen's piece of work on beefcake remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until the 16th century.^[10] ^[eleven] During the Renaissance and early on modernistic menstruum, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed involvement in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey, who used experimentation and careful ascertainment in physiology, and naturalists such as Carl Linnaeus, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, and Buffon who began to classify the diversity of life and the fossil tape, as well every bit studying the development and behavior of organisms. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek did pioneering piece of work in microscopy and revealed the previously unknown globe of microorganisms, laying the background for cell theory.^[12] van Leeuwenhoek'south observations were endorsed by Robert Hooke; all living organisms were equanimous of one or more than cells and could not generate spontaneously. Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life.^[13]

Having previously been the realm of gentlemen naturalists, over the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific subject field. Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environs, and the ways this relationship depends on geography, laying the foundations for biogeography, ecology and ethology. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species.^[14]

These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin'south theory of evolution by natural selection; in this Darwin placed the theory of organic development on a new footing, by explaining the processes by which it can occur, and providing observational show that it had washed so.^[15] Darwin's theory was apace accepted past the scientific community and before long became a central axiom of the quickly developing science of biology. The footing for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel on peas in 1865, although the significance of his work was not realized at the time.^[16]

Darwin gave a new direction to morphology and physiology, past uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic development. The effect was a reconstruction of the classification of animals upon a genealogical ground, fresh investigation of the development of animals, and early attempts to make up one's mind their genetic relationships. The end of the 19th century saw the autumn of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of affliction, though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery. In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's piece of work led to the rapid development of genetics, and past the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural option in the modern synthesis created evolutionary biological science.^[17]

Enquiry in cell biology is interconnected to other fields such as genetics, biochemistry, medical microbiology, immunology, and cytochemistry. With the sequencing of the DNA molecule past Francis Crick and James Watson in 1953, the realm of molecular biology opened upward, leading to advances in cell biology, developmental biological science and molecular genetics. The written report of systematics was transformed as DNA sequencing elucidated the degrees of affinity betwixt different organisms.^[18]

Scope [edit]

Zoology is the branch of science dealing with animals. A species can be defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sex can produce fertile offspring; near 1.v million species of animal accept been described and information technology has been estimated that as many as 8 million animal species may be.^[19] An early necessity was to identify the organisms and group them according to their characteristics, differences and relationships, and this is the field of the taxonomist. Originally it was idea that species were immutable, merely with the arrival of Darwin's theory of evolution, the field of cladistics came into beingness, studying the relationships betwixt the different groups or clades. Systematics is the report of the diversification of living forms, the evolutionary history of a group is known every bit its phylogeny, and the relationship between the clades tin can be shown diagrammatically in a cladogram.^[xx]

Although someone who made a scientific study of animals would historically have described themselves as a zoologist, the term has come to refer to those who bargain with individual animals, with others describing themselves more specifically every bit physiologists, ethologists, evolutionary biologists, ecologists, pharmacologists, endocrinologists or parasitologists.^[21]

Branches of zoology [edit]

Although the report of animal life is ancient, its scientific incarnation is relatively modern. This mirrors the transition from natural history to biology at the first of the 19th century. Since Hunter and Cuvier, comparative anatomical study has been associated with morphography, shaping the modern areas of zoological investigation: anatomy, physiology, histology, embryology, teratology and ethology.^[22] Mod zoology first arose in German and British universities. In Britain, Thomas Henry Huxley was a prominent figure. His ideas were centered on the morphology of animals. Many consider him the greatest comparative anatomist of the latter half of the 19th century. Like to Hunter, his courses were equanimous of lectures and laboratory practical classes in dissimilarity to the previous format of lectures only.

Classification [edit]

Scientific classification in zoology, is a method by which zoologists grouping and categorize organisms past biological type, such as genus or species. Biological classification is a grade of scientific taxonomy. Modern biological classification has its root in the piece of work of Carl Linnaeus, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics. These groupings accept since been revised to improve consistency with the Darwinian principle of common descent. Molecular phylogenetics, which uses nucleic acid sequence equally data, has driven many contempo revisions and is likely to continue to do then. Biological classification belongs to the scientific discipline of zoological systematics.^[23]

Linnaeus'southward table of the animal kingdom from the first edition of Systema Naturae (1735)

Many scientists now consider the five-kingdom system outdated. Mod alternative classification systems generally start with the 3-domain organization: Archaea (originally Archaebacteria); Bacteria (originally Eubacteria); Eukaryota (including protists, fungi, plants, and animals)^[24] These domains reverberate whether the cells have nuclei or not, likewise equally differences in the chemic limerick of the jail cell exteriors.^[24]

Further, each kingdom is broken downward recursively until each species is separately classified. The order is: Domain; kingdom; phylum; class; club; family; genus; species. The scientific name of an organism is generated from its genus and species. For example, humans are listed as Homo sapiens. Human being is the genus, and sapiens the specific epithet, both of them combined make upwards the species name. When writing the scientific proper name of an organism, it is proper to capitalize the outset letter of the alphabet in the genus and put all of the specific epithet in lowercase. Additionally, the entire term may be italicized or underlined.^[25]

The dominant nomenclature system is called the Linnaean taxonomy. It includes ranks and binomial classification. The nomenclature, taxonomy, and nomenclature of zoological organisms is administered by the International Lawmaking of Zoological Nomenclature. A merging draft, BioCode, was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize nomenclature, but has all the same to exist formally adopted.^[26]

Vertebrate and invertebrate zoology [edit]

Vertebrate zoology is the biological discipline that consists of the study of vertebrate animals, that is animals with a backbone, such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The various taxonomically oriented disciplines such equally mammalogy, biological anthropology, herpetology, ornithology, and ichthyology seek to identify and classify species and study the structures and mechanisms specific to those groups. The rest of the animal kingdom is dealt with past invertebrate zoology, a vast and very diverse group of animals that includes sponges, echinoderms, tunicates, worms, molluscs, arthropods and many other phyla, but single-celled organisms or protists are not normally included.^[27]

Structural zoology [edit]

Cell biological science studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their beliefs, interactions, and environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well every bit the specialized cells in multicellular organisms such every bit humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. The similarities and differences between cell types are especially relevant to molecular biology.

Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such every bit organs and organ systems.^[28] Information technology focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are 2 studies that are closely related, and can exist categorized under "structural" studies. Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different groups. Information technology is closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny (the evolution of species).^[29]

Physiology [edit]

Animal anatomical engraving from Handbuch der Anatomie der Tiere für Künstler.

Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures part as a whole. The theme of "construction to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into constitute physiology and animal physiology, only some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied. For case, what is learned near the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of creature physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human species. Physiology studies how, for example, the nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems function and collaborate.^[30]

Developmental biological science [edit]

Developmental biology is the study of the processes past which animals and plants reproduce and grow. The subject area includes the report of embryonic development, cellular differentiation, regeneration, asexual and sexual reproduction, metamorphosis, and the growth and differentiation of stalk cells in the adult organism.^[31] Evolution of both animals and plants is farther considered in the articles on evolution, population genetics, heredity, genetic variability, Mendelian inheritance, and reproduction.

Evolutionary biology [edit]

Evolutionary biological science is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes (natural selection, common descent, speciation) that produced the variety of life on Earth. Evolutionary research is concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many taxonomically oriented disciplines. For case, information technology generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, herpetology, or entomology, but use those organisms equally systems to answer general questions about evolution.^[32]

Evolutionary biological science is partly based on paleontology, which uses the fossil tape to answer questions nigh the mode and tempo of evolution,^[33] and partly on the developments in areas such as population genetics^[34] and evolutionary theory. Following the development of Deoxyribonucleic acid fingerprinting techniques in the late 20th century, the application of these techniques in zoology has increased the understanding of animal populations.^[35] In the 1980s, developmental biology re-entered evolutionary biological science from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the report of evolutionary developmental biology. Related fields often considered office of evolutionary biological science are phylogenetics, systematics, and taxonomy.^[36]

Ethology [edit]

Kelp gull chicks peck at red spot on mother'south beak to stimulate the regurgitating reflex.

Ethology is the scientific and objective study of fauna behavior under natural conditions,^[37] equally opposed to behaviorism, which focuses on behavioral response studies in a laboratory setting. Ethologists have been peculiarly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of beliefs in terms of the theory of natural selection. In 1 sense, the beginning modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, influenced many time to come ethologists.^[38]

A subfield of ethology is behavioral environmental which attempts to answer Nikolaas Tinbergen's four questions with regard to fauna beliefs: what are the proximate causes of the behavior, the developmental history of the organism, the survival value and phylogeny of the behavior?^[39] Some other area of written report is beast cognition, which uses laboratory experiments and carefully controlled field studies to investigate an beast's intelligence and learning.^[xl]

Biogeography [edit]

Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the World,^[41] focusing on topics like dispersal and migration, plate tectonics, climate change, and cladistics. Information technology is an integrative field of study, uniting concepts and information from evolutionary biology, taxonomy, environmental, physical geography, geology, paleontology and climatology.^[42] The origin of this subject is widely accredited to Alfred Russel Wallace, a British biologist who had some of his piece of work jointly published with Charles Darwin.^[43]

Molecular biology [edit]

Molecular biology studies the common genetic and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants, attempting to answer the questions regarding the mechanisms of genetic inheritance and the structure of the factor. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick described the structure of DNA and the interactions within the molecule, and this publication spring-started research into molecular biology and increased involvement in the subject.^[44] While researchers practice techniques specific to molecular biology, it is mutual to combine these with methods from genetics and biochemistry. Much of molecular biological science is quantitative, and recently a significant amount of work has been done using computer science techniques such equally bioinformatics and computational biology. Molecular genetics, the study of gene structure and function, has been among the most prominent sub-fields of molecular biological science since the early 2000s. Other branches of biological science are informed by molecular biology, by either straight studying the interactions of molecules in their ain right such as in cell biological science and developmental biology, or indirectly, where molecular techniques are used to infer historical attributes of populations or species, as in fields in evolutionary biology such every bit population genetics and phylogenetics. There is too a long tradition of studying biomolecules "from the ground up", or molecularly, in biophysics.^[45]

Notes [edit]

^ The pronunciation of zoology as is usually regarded every bit nonstandard, though it is not uncommon.

References [edit]

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